APP–BASED HANDWRITING INSTRUCTION AND HANDWRITING LEGIBILITY OUTCOMES IN STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES: A CONTROLLED INTERVENTION EXPERIMENTAL STUDY USING HANDWRITING WIZARD, LETTERSCHOOL, AND LETRAKID

Abstract

Handwriting legibility is an important academic skill, but students with learning disabilities tend to have ongoing handwriting problems. This study investigated the possibility of mobile app-based handwriting instruction in handwriting legibility, compared results with traditional instruction and investigated differences in three handwriting apps. A quasi-experimental pre-test post-test control group design was adopted with one control group (n = 10) and three experimental groups (n = 10 each). Handwriting legibility was evaluated with the Handwriting Legibility Scale at pre-test and post-test, and analysis of data was performed through the use of nonparametric procedures. Results showed no baseline difference between groups (H (3) = 2.17, p = .538) were significant. Post-test comparison showed a significant result of group effect (H (3) = 13.66, p = .003), and a large effect size (η² = .30). Dunn post-hoc tests suggested that all three experimental groups had significantly higher scores than the control group, but differences between apps were not significant. Gain-score analysis indicated that there was significant variation between groups in the improvement (H (3) = 10.25, p = .017) and one app presented comparatively greater gains. A series of within-group Wilcoxon tests confirmed significant pre-to-post improvement in all the experimental groups (r = .80 - .89), but there was no meaningful change in the control group. The findings suggest mobile handwriting apps are effective supplementary tools to improve handwriting legibility among LD students and that may be meaningfully integrated into special education instruction