DIGITAL READINESS AND TEACHER DIGITAL COMPETENCE IN RURAL PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF SINDH, PAKISTAN: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF DIGITAL TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS IN STUDENT LEARNING ENGAGEMENT

Abstract

The rapid expansion of digital technologies has reshaped teaching and learning practices worldwide, yet rural primary schools in Sindh, Pakistan continue to face persistent gaps in digital infrastructure, teacher preparedness, and classroom technology integration. This study examined how digital readiness (DR) and teacher digital competence (TDC) influence student learning engagement (SLE) in rural primary schools, with digital teaching effectiveness (DTE) modeled as a sequential mediator. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model, the DigCompEdu/TPACK competence frameworks, and Fredricks' three-dimensional engagement model, the study tested a structural model in which DR and TDC act as predictors, DTE serves as a mediating mechanism, and SLE (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive) is the outcome. Data were collected from 500 teachers in rural primary schools across multiple districts of Sindh using validated Likert-type instruments and analyzed using SPSS for reliability, correlation, and hierarchical regression, supplemented by the Hayes PROCESS macro for bootstrapped mediation testing. All study constructs demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .856–.901). Digital readiness significantly predicted teacher digital competence (β = .426, p < .001), and digital readiness and teacher digital competence jointly explained 31.0% of the variance in digital teaching effectiveness, with teacher digital competence emerging as the stronger predictor (β = .458 vs. β = .151). Digital readiness, teacher digital competence, and digital teaching effectiveness together explained 42.4% of the variance in student learning engagement, with digital teaching effectiveness the strongest individual predictor (β = .451). Bootstrapped mediation analysis confirmed that digital teaching effectiveness partially mediated the relationship between teacher digital competence and student learning engagement (indirect effect = .182, 95% CI [.138, .230]). Eight of the nine hypothesized relationships were directly supported by the data; the remaining pathway (DR → DTE → SLE) is identified as requiring a dedicated mediation test beyond the scope of the present analysis. The findings indicate that teacher digital competence and digital teaching effectiveness carry more explanatory weight for student engagement than infrastructural readiness alone, though readiness remains a necessary foundation. The study contributes to the limited body of Pakistan-specific evidence on digital transformation in rural primary education and offers an empirical basis for prioritizing teacher training alongside infrastructure investment, in line with Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education).